Obesity Rates Among The United States - 1182 Words

The obesity rate in America has become a major national health issue over the last several decades. Increasingly alarming statistics have garnered national headlines. Current statistics place 68.5% of the U.S. population in classifications ranging from overweight to super obese. Approximately 35% of all U.S. adults currently fall under the label of obese.(Ogden, et al., 2014) Potentially more alarming is the prevalence of obesity in adolescents. U.S. youth are becoming obese at earlier and earlier ages. One out of six children ages 2-19 are now obese and fully one-third of adolescents are overweight or obese. (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, Lamb, Flegal, 2010) Between 1980 and 2000, obesity rates among adults doubled and tripled among adolescents. (CDC.gov) Increasingly high obesity rates among the U.S. population have both personal and societal ramifications. For the individual, increased body mass has been linked to a myriad of health issues including heart disease, Type II diabetes, high cholesterol, cancer, strokes, kidney liver disease, and hypertension. (Wilmore, et al., 2008) On a societal level, the Center for Disease Control estimates that obesity related medical care costs reached a staggering $147 billion in 2008 with obese patients costing $1,400 more per patient than those that fell into a normal weight rage (CDC). Obesity-related diseases may also contribute to millions of lost workdays and higher insurance premiums (CNBC). Most medical professionalsShow MoreRelatedObesity Is A Common Lifestyle852 Words   |  4 PagesA healthy body tends to lead towards a higher quality of life and lower medical costs. Unfortunately, the United States’ population is suffering from an increasing epidemic of obesity. Ever since the 1970’s, obesity rates have more than doubled within adults and children (â€Å"Obesity in the U.S.†). Obesity is starting to be seen more and more in society, but it all starts with the individual deciding whether to become obese or not. Society defines being obese as having an excess of body fat; or in otherRead MoreReduced Energy Expenditure And Prevalence Obesity Rates Among Children928 Words   |  4 Pageshas contributed to prevalence obesity rates among children. Demographic and epidemiologic analysis alone do not account for the high rates in childhood obesity. These analysis help provide a clearer understanding of why obesity is a national epidemic. It is significant as public health officials to know that there are substantial racial differences in obesity among young kids and teenagers in the United States. Among Hispanics for instance, the incidence of obesity was higher in 2011-2012 at 22Read MoreChildhood Obesity Among Hispanic Children1729 Words   |  7 Pages Obesity among Hispanic Children Childhood obesity has increased dramatically during the past decade (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2011). Although the rise in obesity cuts across all of age groups, both genders, and all cultural and racial groups; statistics have demonstrated that Hispanic children are more likely to become obese than White or Black children in the United States. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (2011), childhood obesity is more prevalentRead MoreObesity : Obesity And Obesity989 Words   |  4 PagesObesity is a condition in which the over accumulation of adipose fat tissue causes the weight of a person to increase abnormally. Their weight exceeds by 20%, as a factor of their ideal body weight. According to recent analysis, statistics show that more than one third of the world’s population is targeted by obesity. Research shows that overweight and obesity kills more people than underweight. Obesity occurs greatly amongst adults who are 18 years or old er. An estimated 600 million adults wereRead MoreFactors That Influence Obesity Rates Among Children Essay1520 Words   |  7 PagesThis paper will describe the factors that influence obesity rates among children. It will review relevant literature concerning the bio-psychosocial facts and etiology involved in childhood obesity. This paper will discuss why this is a problem not only for the client system, but also a significant social problem. Multiple systems will be explored to support the continuation of the problem on a micro, mezzo and macro level. Some specific policies that exacerbate the problem will be looked at alongRead MoreObesity : A Common Disorder Essay982 Words   |  4 PagesObesity is defined as being grossly fat or overweight. It’s a common disorder involving excessive body fat that increases the risk of health problems. Obesity is also a chronic disease that can have a negative effect on many systems in your body. It is classified as having a Body Mass Index(BMI) of 30 or greater. This condition is very common and usually self treatable rather you choose to diet or exercises which are great strategies for losing weight. Obesity increases your risk of developing relatedRead MoreObesity : A Common And Costly Health Issue Essay760 Words   |  4 PagesObesity have been increasing over the last 30 years, with high rates globally, and among all economic levels. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures: Obesity, a common and costly health issue that increases risk for heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer, affects more than one-third of adults and 17 percent of youth in the United States. By the numbers, 78 million adults and 12 million children are obese—figures many regard as an epidemic (â€Å"Obesity Statistics in the UnitedRead MoreObesity Is Prevalent Between Children And Adolescents In1177 Words   |  5 PagesObesity is prevalent between children and adolescents in the United States. Obesity is the second leading cause of death after smoking in the US. It also causes cancer, and it is associated with unhealthy eating and less exercise or physical activity. The concerns of childhood and adolescent obesity include earlier puberty and menarche in girls, type 2 diabetes and increased rate of the metabolic disease in adolescence and adults. Therefore, the rate of obesity has increased in the American childrenRead MoreObesity : The State Of Imbalance Between The Calo ries1459 Words   |  6 PagesObesity is the state of imbalance between the calories consumed versus the calories expended leading to an excessive fat accumulation in adipose tissue resulting in physical and psychological problems. The excess fat is distributed in the body either around the waist (abdominal fat), trunk (android store fat) or gynoid store fat in hips/thighs. The primary causes of obesity are inactivity, unhealthy diet and eating habits, genetics, unhealthy diet and lifestyle, certain medications like antidepressantsRead MoreWhat Is The Total Population In The City Of Murphy, Texas?1628 Words   |  7 Pages, 2017.) and the â€Å"United States population as of today, October 3, 2017 of 326,102, 454† (Bureau, U.C., 2017). There was data for The State of Texas on the United Census Bureau’s website, for July 1, 2016, but there was not a comparison for Murphy, Texas so the last comparison was April 1, 2010. As of April 1, 2010, there were â€Å"9.6% of children under the age of five years old in the City of Murphy, Texas and 7.7% in the State of Texas† (Bureau, U.C., 2017.). â€Å"The United States report stated â€Å"6.5%

An Event Coordinator For Tippecanoe Villa, A Resident Home...

Nervousness and excitement filled my being as I took those first, shaky steps on Purdue University’s West Lafayette campus. Having just lost my only parent to cancer the year prior, the determination to honor her memory by being the first to graduate college burned brightly within me as I made my way through the halls to my dorm room. What occurred afterwards is testaments my resolve to complete the endeavor I started in hopes of finding grandeur in the pastures beyond graduation. It is this same hope that drives my aspiration to become a Human Resource Generalist through the impactful knowledge and networks gained within University of Colorado Global Campus’ masters of Human Resources Management. My time in undergrad served as a challenging, engaging, eye-opening, and an ultimately unforgettable experience. Being culturally inclined, I joined and became president of Purdue’s only multicultural sorority, Lambda Phi Xi. My need for service excellence in the community led me to become an event coordinator for Tippecanoe Villa, a resident home for elderly and disabled individuals. While I was highly engaged in my social and leadership opportunities, my studies proved to be a different matter entirely. Imagine, for a moment, losing your biggest supporter in life. Imagine being the only person you have ever known to attend college. Then, imagine having a scholarship that only provided you with eight consecutive semesters to graduate with no chance to take time off to find your

Waste Management and Disposal free essay sample

Waste is an unavoidable by-product of most human activity. Economic development and rising living standards in the Asian and Pacific Region have led to increases in the quantity and complexity of generated waste, whilst industrial diversification and the provision of expanded health-care facilities have added substantial quantities of industrial hazardous waste and biomedical waste into the waste stream with potentially severe environmental and human health consequences. Waste is a general term used to describe any material that is no longer useful. Its composition and volume largely depend on consumption patterns and the industrial and economic structures in place. Air quality, water and soil contamination, space consumption and odors all affect our quality of life. On a global scale, calculating the amount of waste being generated presents a problem. The Basel Convention has estimated the amount of hazardous and other waste generated for 2000 and 2001 at 318 and 338 million tons respectively. Waste is also a result of: Overproduction – making things before they are needed Waiting – the time and resources consumed in between major steps in a process. We will write a custom essay sample on Waste Management and Disposal or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Transporting – the unnecessary movement and handling of work. Inappropriate Processing – involves resource overkill, also known as ‘gold platting’. Unnecessary Inventory – in manufacturing the concern is Work-In-Progress (WIP). Unnecessary / Excess Motion — refer to the unnatural acts that people are made to perform in doing their job. Defects – errors are the common focus of improvement disciplines like six-sigma. Municipal solid waste is generated from households, offices, hotels, shops, schools and other institutions. The major components are food waste, paper, plastic, rags, metal and glass, although demolition and construction debris is often included in collected waste, as are small quantities of hazardous waste, such as electric light bulbs, batteries, automotive parts and discarded medicines and chemicals 2. Industrial Waste Industrial solid waste in the Asian and Pacific Region, as elsewhere, encompasses a wide range of materials of varying environmental toxicity. Typically this range would include paper, packaging materials, waste from food processing, oils, solvents, resins, paints and sludges, glass, ceramics, stones, metals, plastics, rubber, leather, wood, cloth, straw, abrasives, etc. As with municipal solid waste, the absence of a regularly up-dated and systematic database on industrial solid waste ensures that the exact rates of generation are largely unknown. 3. Agricultural Waste and Residues Expanding agricultural production has naturally resulted in increased quantities of livestock waste, agricultural crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. . Biomedical Waste The number of hospitals and health care institutions in the Asian and Pacific Region has been increasing to meet the medical and health care requirements of the growing population. Although city planners have long taken into consideration the provision of medical and health care institutions and services, until recent years, they, and even municipal waste management au thorities, have paid very little attention to the wastes generated from these facilities, which are potentially hazardous to human health and the environment. . Radioactive or Nuclear Waste Information regarding disposal practices for radioactive waste is not extensive and few systematic country surveys have been conducted. In Japan, low level radioactive waste generated from 46 operating nuclear power plants is packed into 2 000 liter drums and temporarily stored in on-site storehouses. 6. Due to advancement in technology another type of waste is the Waste electrical and electronic equipment (commonly referred to as WEEE) consists of end of life products and comprises of a range of electrical and lectronic items such as, Refrigerators, IT and telecommunication equipment, Freezers, Electrical and electronic tools, Washing machines, Medical equipment Toasters, Monitoring and control instruments, Hairdryers, Automatic dispensers, Televisions, etc. Impact of Waste Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause serious problems. In the UK much is buried in landfill sites – holes in the ground, sometimes old quarries, some times specially dug. Some waste will eventually rot, but not all, and in the process it may smell or generate methane gas, which is explosive and contributes to the greenhouse effect. Leach ate produced as waste decomposes may cause pollution. Badly-managed landfill sites may attract vermin or cause litter. Litter is basically Land spoilage, degradation of land that occurs due to either natural or man-made causes. Waste that is not properly managed, especially excreta and other liquid and solid waste from households and the community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread of infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other creatures that in turn spread disease. Plastic waste is another cause for ill health. 1st page left -After more than a century of heavy industrialization and consumption, the planet’s inhabitants are feeling the impacts of over-crowded garbage dumps, contaminated sites, acid rain and polluted air and water. Along with industry, the everyday actions of individuals – such as driving, yard work, home energy and home water use. 2nd page right -Oceans make up the main part of water bodies on the earth and are also home to a large number and wide variety of species or life forms. Over the years and especially in modern times, surplus human activities have adversely affected the marine life. The most important ill effect has been pollution. Incidents of oil spills, industrial waste dumping, garbage disposal and accumulation of various toxic materials as wastes, from many processes has polluted almost all the major aquatic bodies around the globe. Need for Waste Management in India India generates around 0. 2 to 0. 3 million tons of waste on an average every day. A city like Bangalore generates around 3500-4000 tons of waste while Mumbai and Delhi average almost double of this. The onus of disposing this waste in a safe way falls on the municipal corporation. While the developed nations also face the complicated issue of waste disposal, there is a fundamental difference – other nations have been able to achieve high levels of source segregation and have done much more scientific studies on the various disposal techniques and more importantly, implemented them through active public-private participation. Apart from the obvious environmental hazards, there are direct and indirect economic costs to this – while the healthcare costs go up due to the air and water pollution happening in the vicinity of the populace, so do the remedial costs for mitigating the contamination of water table due to the seepage of the waste into it. Especially in India, where this network is huge, this problem will become rampant when corporates undertake what the rag pickers have been doing for ages and is their sole source of livelihood. Proper waste disposal is of great importance to both rural and urban areas. Not doing this may bring us to danger in many ways and surely everybody knows this. Time and again, people are always being educated about the importance of waste but then this process should not stop because every now and then, people forget. So, going back to proper waste disposal, there are so many ways on how people can minimize the accumulation of waste for lesser job to be done in the future. Methods of Safe Disposal of Waste For over thirty years, African nations have been used as the dump station for hazardous waste materials from countries larger and richer. These countries are attempting to lower the costs by disposing or recycling hazardous by-products created by their industrial business. Many African nations have been sought financial gain by importing hazardous waste from the west because they are trapped with economic affliction. Waste disposal is a growing problem worldwide and is directly connected to industrial development and population growth. Since early modern times, disposing of waste has been an important concern for individuals and community officials. Although there have been recent advancements in waste disposal, it remains an overall public safety and environmental health issue hat countries around the world continue to address. there are many steps to manage or prevent the accumulation of waste: 1. Segregating waste Waste can be segregated as 1. Biodegradable 2. Non Biodegradable. Biodegradable wastes include organic waste, e. g. kitchen waste, vegetables, fruits, flowers, leaves from the garden, and paper. Non biodegradable waste can be further segregated into: a) Recyclable waste – plastics, paper, glass, metal, etc. b) Toxic waste – old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish. ) Soiled – hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids. 2. Dumping of Waste A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment. Historically, landfills have been the most common methods of organized waste disposal and remain so in many places around the world. Landfills may include internal waste disposal as well as sites used by many producers. Many landfills are also used for waste management purposes, such as the temporary s torage, consolidation and transfer, or processing of waste material (sorting, treatment, or recycling). . Composting Composting is natures way of recycling. Composting biodegrades organic waste. i. e. food waste, manure, leaves, grass trimmings, paper, wood, feathers, crop residue etc. , and turns it into a valuable organic fertilizer. Composting is a natural biological process, carried out under controlled aerobic conditions (requires oxygen). In this process, various microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi, break down organic matter into simpler substances. The effectiveness of the composting process is dependent upon the environmental conditions present within the composting system i. e. xygen, temperature, moisture, material disturbance, organic matter and the size and activity of microbial populations. 4. Drainage Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from an area. Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies. Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture. In the northern USA and Eu rope, glaciations created numerous small lakes which gradually filled with humus to make marshes. Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches to make muck lands, which are primarily used for high value crops such as vegetables. After periods of high rainfall, drainage pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet soils. There are many different types of drainage solutions and drainage installation methods. Choosing the right one often can help alleviate a drainage problem. The installation of the French drain is generally made to best facilitate the distribution of water away from problem areas. 5. Treatment of Effluents Before Discharge Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and household sewage, both runoff (effluents) and domestic. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce an environmentally-safe fluid waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste (or treated sludge) suitable for disposal or reuse (usually as farm fertilizer). Using advanced technology it is now possible to re-use sewage effluent for drinking water, although Singapore is the only country to implement such technology on a production scale in its production of NEWater. 6. Incineration Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as thermal treatment. Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat. The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste, and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere. In some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power. Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and the volume (already compressed somewhat in garbage trucks) by 95-96 %, depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling. [2] This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it significantly reduces the necessary volume for disposal. 7. Use of Scrubbers And Electrostatic Precipitators Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams. Traditionally, the term scrubber has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream. Recently, the term is also used to describe systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to wash out acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control gaseous emissions, especially acid gases. Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas condensation. There are several methods to remove toxic or corrosive compounds from exhaust gas and neutralize it. An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream. 1] In contrast to wet scrubbers which apply energy directly to the flowing fluid medium, an ESP applies energy only to the particulate matter being collected and therefore is very efficient in its consumption of energy (in the form of electricity). Conclusion In a country like India, which aspires to be a global economic giant, public health and quality of life are degrading everyd ay with the increasing gap between services required and those provided. India is also considered a sacred nation by the majority of its inhabitants but the streets and open lands in Indian cities are filled with untreated and rotting garbage. Some countries have achieved considerable success in solid waste management. But the rest of the world is grappling to deal with its wastes. In these places, improper management of solid waste continues to impact public health of entire communities and cities; pollute local water, air and land resources; contribute to climate change and ocean plastic pollution; hinder climate change adaptation; and accelerate depletion of forests and mines. Waste management is not just a corporate social responsibility or a non-priority service anymore. Improper waste management is a public health and environmental crisis, economic loss, operational inefficiency and political and public awareness failure. Integrated solid waste management can be a nation building exercise for healthier and wealthier communities. Therefore, it needs global attention to arrive at solutions which span across such a wide range of issues.

Long Term Effects of Exercise on the Body free essay sample

Chronic responses are very specific to the type of training performed. †¢ The frequency, duration and intensity of the training undertaken – the greater these things, the more pronounced the adaptations †¢ The individual’s capacities and hereditary factors (genetic make-up) Chronic Adaptations to Aerobic (endurance) Training: †¢ Minimum period is 6 weeks †¢ More evident over 12 weeks †¢ Adaptations occur at both tissue and system levels. Cardiorespiratory Adaptations to Aerobic (endurance) Training Chronic cardio-respiratory adaptations are primarily designed for more efficient delivery of larger quantities of oxygen to working muscles. †¢ They decrease cardiovascular disease (CVD)and other health-related illnesses. †¢ Cardio-respiratory adaptations are best developed through continuous, fartlek and longer interval type training. Cardiovascular Adaptations: Cardiac hypertrophy (increased ventricular volume): †¢ Enlargement of the heart muscle itself †¢ Increase in size and volume of the ventricular chambers, particularly the left ventricle occurs. Significantly increases stroke volume Increased capillarisation of the heart muscle: †¢ Increase in capillarisation of the heart muscle itself (Increase in capillary density and blood flow to the heart muscle) †¢ Increased supply of blood and oxygen allows the heart to beat more strongly and efficiently during rest and exercise †¢ Coronary protective benefit (therefore decreased risk of heart attack) Increased stroke volume of the heart: Heart ejects a greater volume of blood with each beat Stroke volume is greater at rest, during sub-max and max workloads for a trained athlete compared to an untrained person Eg. We will write a custom essay sample on Long Term Effects of Exercise on the Body or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Average stroke volume at rest: †¢ Untrained male 70-80millilitres/beat, †¢ Trained male endurance athlete 100millilitres/beat or more. During maximal exercise: †¢ Untrained person – 110 millilitres/beat †¢ Trained person – 130 millilitres/beat †¢ Elite endurance athletes – 190 millilitres/beat Trained and untrained females have lower stroke volumes than their male counterparts under all exercise conditions, mainly due to a smaller heart size Lower resting heart rate: The amount of oxygen required by an individual at rest does not alter as a result of their training status. At rest, it takes about 5 litres of blood per minute (cardiac output) to circulate around the body to supply the required amount of oxygen to the body cells Cardiac output (Q) is equal to stroke volume (SV) multiplied by heart rate (HR). Q = SV x HR However, if an individual has developed a greater stroke volume, the heart does not have to beat as frequently to supply the required blood flow Eg. Before training: Q = SV x HR 5L/min = 70 mL/beat x 71 beats/min After training: Q = SV x HR 5L/min = 100 mL/beat x 50 beats/min This is why resting heart rate is a useful indicator of aerobic fitness. Lower resting heart rate – greater level of aerobic fitness †¢ Elite – 35bpm (marathon runners, triathletes, distance swimmers) †¢ Average adult male – 70bpm Lower heart rate during sub-maximal workloads: Mainly a result of increased stroke volume. The heart works more efficiently (More blood is pumped with each beat, and therefore the heart doesn’t have to work as hard to supply the required blood flow and oxygen supply) Slower increase in heart rate during exercise and a lower and faster attainment of steady state during exercise Improved heart-rate recovery rates: Heart rate of a trained athlete will return to pre-exercise levels (resting rate) in a much shorter time than that of an untrained individual. Increased cardiac output at maximum workloads: Cardiac output – unchanged at rest and even during sub-maximal exercise regardless of training status. Does increase during maximal exercise. Maximal exercise – may increase to values of: †¢ 20-22 litres per minute for untrained male †¢ 15-16 litres per minute for untrained females †¢ 30 litres per minute or more – highly trained athletes Lower blood pressure: May lower blood pressure, especially among people who suffer from hypertension (high blood pressure) Systolic and diastolic pressure levels may decrease during both rest and exercise Helps to reduce resistance to blood flow and reduces strain on the heart, thereby decreasing the risk of heart attack and other cardiovascular conditions Increased arterio-venous oxygen difference (a-VO2 diff): Trained individuals are able to absorb more oxygen from their bloodstream into their muscles during exercise performance compared to untrained subjects. This is due to: †¢ Increased muscle myoglobin stores †¢ Increased number and size of mitochondria within their muscles As a result of this, the concentration of oxygen within the venous blood is lower Subsequently the arterio-venous oxygen difference is increased during both sub-max and maximal exercise Therefore, and increased arterio-venous oxygen difference (a-VO2 diff) indicates a greater uptake of oxygen by the muscles with trained individuals Increased blood volume and haemoglobin levels: Total blood volume may rise by up to 25% (from 5. 25L to 6. 6L) for an average adult male with regular and sustained aerobic training. Red blood cells may increase in number and the haemoglobin content and oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood may also rise. Increased capillarisation of skeletal muscle: The average number of capillaries supplying each muscle fibres is: †¢ 5. for trained athletes †¢ 4. 4 for untrained athletes Changes to blood cholesterol, triglycerides, low- and high-density lipoprotein levels: Results may include a decrease in blood cholesterol levels, triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein (LDL). These substances are associated with the development of coronary heart disease. Aerobic training increases the ratio of high-density lipo-protein (HDL) to low-density lipoprotein. High-density lipoprotein is thought to provide a coronary protective effect, lessening the risk of developing coronary heart disease. Respiratory Adaptations Increased lung ventilation: More efficient and improved lung ventilation At rest and during sub-maximal exercise, ventilation may be reduced due to improved oxygen extraction However, during maximal workloads, ventilation is increased because of increased tidal volume (amount of air breathed in and out in one breath) and respiratory frequency (the number of breaths taken per minute). Pulmonary diffusion (the ability of the blood to extract oxygen from the alveoli) is also enhanced. Increased maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) Increase in the maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) during maximal exercise Improvement can be between 5–30% following a regular and sustained training program This occurs because of adaptations such as: †¢ Increased cardiac output †¢ Increased red blood cell numbers †¢ Increased a-VO2 difference †¢ Increased muscle capillarisation †¢ Greater oxygen extraction by the muscles Increased anaerobic or lactate threshold As a result of the adaptations that improve oxygen delivery and utilisation in the muscles, a higher lactate threshold (the point at which oxygen supply cannot keep up with oxygen demand) is developed. Advantage: The anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid) system is not utilised as much until higher exercise intensities are reached. Consequently, lactic acid and hydrogen ion accumulation will be delayed until these higher work-load intensities are attained The athlete can â€Å"work harder and for longer periods† Muscle Tissue Adaptations to A erobic (Endurance) Training: Chronic aerobic training adaptations within muscular tissue are best produced through continuous training or high-repetition resistance training The following tissue-level changes can be observed within skeletal muscles following extensive endurance training: Increased oxygen utilisation: Aerobic training enhances the body’s ability to attract oxygen into the muscle cells and then utilise it to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for muscle contraction This process occurs in the following ways: †¢ Increased size and number of mitochondria – Mitochondria are the site of ATP synthesis and where glycogen and triglyceride stores are oxidised (Greater oxidisation of fuels to produce ATP) †¢ Increased myoglobin stores – Myoglobin is the substance in the muscle cell that attracts oxygen from the bloodstream into the muscle. (Increase ability to extract oxygen) Increased muscular fuel stores: Increase in the muscular storage of glycogen, free fatty acids and triglycerides, along with the oxidative enzymes required to metabolise these fuel stores and produce ATP. Increased oxidation of glucose and fats: The muscular adaptations result in an increase in the capacity of muscle fibres to oxidate both glucose and fats The capacity of the aerobic system to metabolise these fuels is increased Increased oxidation of fats as a fuel source; due to: †¢ Increased storage of triglycerides and free fatty acids †¢ Increased levels of enzymes associated with fat metabolism Means that: At any given exercise intensity, a trained individual has to rely less on glycogen, thereby â€Å"sparing† glycogen stores (Glycogen sparing) Therefore delaying the time to exhaustion due to glycogen depletion. Decreased utilisation of the anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid) system: The enhanced capacity of the muscles to aerobically metabolise glucose and fats and other muscular level adaptations also means that there is less reliance upon the anaerobic glycolysis system to produce energy for ATP resynthesis until higher exercise intensities are reached. Allows athletes to work at higher intensities without exceeding lactate threshold. OR †¢ Aerobic training results in an increase in the lactate threshold Eg. An athlete must run at a faster pace in order to accumulate the same amount of blood lactic acid as before training Muscle-fibre type adaptation: Some research has shown evidence that skeletal muscle switches fibre types from fast twitch to slow twitch as a result of endurance training. Skeletal muscle fibres are classified into three types: Type 1 – Slow-twitch oxidative fibres: Contain large amounts of myoglobin, and large numbers of mitochondria and blood capillaries. †¢ Red †¢ Split ATP at a slow rate †¢ Slow contraction velocity †¢ Very resistant to fatigue †¢ High capacity to generate ATP by oxidative metabolic processes. Type 2A – Fast-twitch oxidative fibres: †¢ Contain an extremely large amount of myoglobin, and huge numbers of mitochondria and blood capillaries. †¢ Red †¢ Very high capacity for generating ATP by oxidative metabolic processes †¢ Split ATP at a very rapid rate †¢ Fast contraction velocity †¢ Resistant to fatigue Type 2B – Fast-twitch glycolytic fibres: †¢ Contain low myoglobin content, relatively few mitochondria and blood capillaries, and large amounts of glycogen †¢ White †¢ Geared to generate ATP by anaerobic metabolic processes †¢ Fatigue easily †¢ Split ATP at a fast rate †¢ Fast contraction velocity Individual muscles are a mixture of the three types of muscle fibres, but their proportions vary depending on the action of the muscle and the genetic make-up of the individual Summary of muscle tissue adaptations to aerobic (endurance) training: Before Training |After Training | |Mitochondria (size and number) |Increased | |Glycogen Stores |Increased | |Myoglobin |Increased | |Triglyceride Stores |Increased | |Oxidation (both glucose and fats) |Increased |Anaerobic Glycolysis (lactic acid system) |Decreased | |Muscle Type Adaptation (number and type) |Increased | | | | | |Some conversion of: | | |Type 2B fibres to | | |Type 2A fibres | Chronic Adaptatio ns to Anaerobic Training Anaerobic training effects are best developed through sprint training, shorter and faster interval training, plyometric training, circuit training, and resistance (strength and power) training. The greatest adaptations occur at the muscle-tissue level. They include: Muscle hypertrophy: Significant enlargement of muscle fibres (mainly Type 2B fast-twitch fibres) resulting in muscular hypertrophy (an increase in the cross-sectional size of the muscle) and subsequently, greater strength